50 Facts You Didn't Know About Roman Gladiators
In the days of the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire, the Gladiators were the most popular entertainment. At massive arenas like the Colosseum, hundreds and even thousands of Roman citizens would gather to watch these gruesome spectacles. The gladiators and their games have become legendary and are among the most iconic imagery of Ancient Rome.
How much do you know about the Roman gladiators? From their recruitment and training to the games themselves, the gladiators led exciting and often perilous lives. Here are 50 facts you didn't know about the Roman gladiators.
The Meaning Of The Word Gladiator
What does the word gladiator actually mean? In Latin, gladiator means swordsman. It is derived from the word gladius, which means sword. This Latin inscription is at the Colosseum, the largest and most famous of the gladiatorial arenas.
The Roman Republic helped popularize Latin as the primary language of Italy. Latin gradually spread to parts of the western Roman Empire and has influenced many modern languages.
The First Gladiatorial Games
According to the Romans, the first gladiatorial games were held in 264 B.C. A funeral was being held for Junius Brutus Pera, a prominent Roman aristocrat. To honor the deceased man, three pairs of slaves were forced to fight to the death.
This first ceremony lacked the size and spectacle that would characterize later gladiatorial games. Nevertheless, it is the earliest recorded instance of gladiatorial combat. Over time, gladiatorial games would lose their funerary context and become a popular form of entertainment.
Many Gladiators Were Slaves
Many of the gladiators were slaves. These slaves were purchased for the sole purpose of combating and often perishing in the arena. Prospective buyers would make their selections based on stamina, strength, and physical attractiveness.
Not only would these qualities help in the arena, but they would also increase popularity with audiences. As gladiators, these slaves would have a special status in society. Because of this, they were often depicted on mosaics, pottery, and other forms of artwork.
Some Gladiators Were Criminals
Some gladiators were condemned criminals. Rather than being sentenced to death, those who had committed crimes were sent into the dangerous arena. As gladiators, they were given a chance to survive and obtain honor in Roman society.
However, there was also a chance that they would die a gruesome death. Some Roman emperors used the gladiatorial arena as a form of capital punishment. In 315 A.D., during the reign of Emperor Constantine, it was a common practice for child abductors to be sentenced to the arena.
Some Gladiators Were Volunteers
Because of the honor associated with being a gladiator, some volunteered to join this dangerous occupation. Those who had experienced misfortune, such as financial debt, could become gladiators to improve their social or legal standing.
Since volunteers were compensated, some became gladiators for money. Some became gladiators just for the fun of it. One of the most famous examples of this was Emperor Commodus.
Emperor Commodus The Gladiator
Emperor Commodus is known for his eccentric and dictatorial personality. He was also quite fond of the gladiatorial games and participated as a combatant on multiple occasions. This was generally frowned upon, given his status as the emperor.
In the arena, Commodus always won. This is because his opponents always deferred to him. Fortunately, Commodus did not kill his opponents. However, he did kill many animals, often with much glee. In one recorded instance, he beheaded a running ostrich with a special kind of dart.
Commodus May Have Been The Son Of A Gladiator
Cassius Dio, the ancient historian, believed that Commodus was the son of a gladiator. This would make his love for the arena all the more fitting. Since his father had been a philosopher, it would certainly explain the differences between them.
Reportedly, his mother Faustina had an affair with a young gladiator. Faustina is depicted in the sculpture above.
Becoming A Gladiator For Revenge
In at least one instance, a person became a gladiator for revenge. A wealthy man named Gracchus felt that his honor had been insulted. In response, he participated in what seems to have been a rather comical gladiatorial match.
Instead of donning the typical gladiatorial wear, he was dressed in what was described at the time as womanly attire. He also wore a headdress commonly associated with priests of the god Mars, as pictured above. Rather than confronting his opponent, he repeatedly avoided him. This not only humiliated his opponent but garnered him uproarious applause from the amused spectators.
Some Gladiators Were Women
While the majority of gladiators were men, some were women. A gladiatrix is a proper name for a female gladiator. Their existence is confirmed only by a handful of written accounts. It is believed that they were considered a rare and exotic attraction.
A gladiatrix is depicted in the marble statue above. Despite their proven abilities, these female warriors were not as popular with audiences. Some considered gladiatrices to be a corruption of womanhood and Roman values.
Emperor Titus Was A Huge Fan Of Gladiatrices
In the arena, a gladiatrix was often presented with an elaborate, fabricated backstory. Though gladiatrices had their detractors, one of their biggest fans was Emperor Titus. He is depicted in the statue below.
Titus ruled the Roman Empire from 79 to 81 A.D. Apparently, he enjoyed watching these fierce female warriors fight each other. Like gladiators, gladiatrices would sometimes fight to the death in brutal combat.
Gladiatrices Wore Less Than Gladiators
Unlike gladiators, gladiatrices did not wear helmets in the arena. Presumably, this was to show off their faces and hairstyles. While a gladiator wore a tunic to cover and protect himself, a gladiatrix only wore a loincloth.
Not only was this more exploitive, but it also put the gladiatrix at a greater risk of being injured or killed. Unfortunately, that was one of the main reasons people went to these violent events. Septimus Severus, who is depicted in the sculpture above, banned female gladiators in 200 A.D.
Some Gladiators Were Children
As unthinkable as it may be, some gladiators were children. Child gladiators were fairly rare, even more so than female gladiators. Nevertheless, some accounts have confirmed their existence.
One account comes from the reign of Emperor Nero, who is pictured above. In 66 A.D., he had Ethiopian men, women, and children fight in a gladiatorial event. The event was held in hopes of impressing King Tiridates I of Armenia.
The Survival Rate Of Gladiators
Given their dangerous occupation, few gladiators survived into old age. The majority of gladiators died between the ages of 18 and 25. Only a handful survived more than 10 matches. However, there is one recorded instance of a gladiator surviving an incredible 150 matches.
With roughly 400 gladiatorial arenas across the Roman Empire, it is believed that an average of 8,000 gladiators died every year. Gladiators were typically buried in unmarked graves, symbolizing their separation from the rest of society, even in death.
The Gladiatorial Code
Gladiators had a code of rules that they followed. In the arena, their primary goal was to overcome their opponent without killing them. Contrary to the image they presented, they were entertainers first and killers second.
While violence was encouraged, death was to be held off as long as possible. The referee of a gladiatorial match would intervene if it looked like one of the gladiators might die. The decision of whether or not a gladiator killed their opponent was often for the audience to make.
Former Gladiators Became Referees
Gladiators who had served sufficient time in the arena could eventually become referees. Similar to umpires in baseball, their job was to ensure that the gladiatorial code was followed. They carried whips to keep the gladiators from misbehaving. The referees also had batons that they would use to point out when someone broke the rules.
The highest rank a former gladiator could achieve was Summa Rudis. A Summa Rudis wore white and purple tunics and could determine if a gladiator lived or died.
Not All Gladiators Fought To The Death
Gladiators are often depicted as fighting each other to the death. However, this was not always the case. If spectators were becoming bored by the match, they could even end in a stalemate.
On rare occasions, both gladiators were allowed to live if they provided sufficient entertainment to the crowd. Additionally, their promoters had an invested interest in gladiators due to the costs involved. It was in their best interests for the gladiators to survive. Training new gladiators also took considerable time.
The Gladiator Schools
Gladiators received their training at specialized schools, of which there were roughly 100. These schools offered more than training for gladiators. They also served as barracks and even prisons. A promoter or manager would arrange for the gladiators' training and when and where they fought.
New gladiators underwent a strict regime that required them to train every day. Fortunately, they received excellent medical care from the beginning of their training. Upon their arrival, they were checked to ensure that they were physically able to fight as a gladiator.
The Largest Of The Gladiator Schools
The largest of the gladiator schools in Rome was the Ludus Magnus. Emperor Domitian built the school in the first century A.D. It was also called the Great Gladiatorial Training School. At the school, gladiators from all over the Roman Empire were trained and housed.
Interestingly, much of what survives today was built by Trajan after Domitian's death. The Ludus Magnus was discovered in 1937 but was not excavated until the late 1950s. As can be seen in the image above, the school is a short distance from the Colosseum.
A Gladiator's First Fight
Before entering the arena, a gladiator would have their first fight at the school where they trained. The gladiator schools could host hundreds and even thousands of spectators. The Ludus Magnus could hold up to 3,000 spectators.
This allowed gladiators to get some practical application of their skills. It also allowed the public to enjoy some gladiatorial combat outside of major arenas. If a particular gladiator was very popular, their school might rent them out.
Schools Rented Out Their Gladiators
It was a fairly common practice for schools to rent out their gladiators. The schools were owned by wealthy men who could make large sums of money by renting out their best fighters. Schools also rented out their newer, less experienced fighters for much less.
If a gladiator was killed in combat, it could actually benefit the owner. The rental agreement would become a sale, nearly doubling the original price.
The Amenities At Gladiator Schools
Depending on the owner, gladiator schools would be built with a variety of amenities. The purpose of these amenities was not to ensure their comfort but to keep the owner's investments in good condition. Some schools had underfloor heating and hot water for soothing baths. Pictured below is the gladiator school in Pompeii.
In Austria, archaeologists found the remains of a gladiator school. This school had its own infirmary for sick or wounded gladiators. It also had a cemetery. Another important part of a gladiator's life was their diet.
The Gladiator Diet
To keep up their strength and stamina, gladiators were consistently well-fed. Interestingly, the diet of a gladiator was almost entirely vegetarian. Among its staples were barley, dried fruit, oatmeal, and boiled beans.
Barley was widely considered to be inferior to wheat and was only given to Roman legionaries as punishment. However, it was known for its nourishing properties. This made it a suitable choice for the gladiators, who were often exhausted from their encounters in the arena.
Former Gladiators Taught At Schools
Aside from serving as referees, former gladiators also taught at gladiator schools. They comprised the majority of trainers. Given their experience in the arena, they were the most qualified to instruct the next generation of gladiators.
As instructors or Magistri, these former gladiators enjoyed a more comfortable life. They resided in training camps with separate quarters from the gladiators. The instructors also had larger rooms.
Gladiators Had Their Own Unions
Over time, gladiators joined together as part of formal associations called collegia. These collegia were essentially unions. There were also collegia for other professions, such as actors, wine dealers, and shoemakers.
The collegium for gladiators was called the Collegium Armariorum. If a gladiator was killed in combat, the collegium ensured that they received a proper burial. They also saw to it that the gladiator's family received compensation for their loss.
There Were Different Classes Of Gladiators
There were different classes of gladiators based on their skills and weaponry. The most popular were the Murmillones and the Thraeces, who both fought with a sword and shield. A Murmillo can be seen defeating a Thraex on the engraved lamp below.
The Equites carried a sword or spear and rode into combat on horseback, while the Essedarii rode chariots. The Scissores wielded double-bladed swords that resembled a pair of scissors without a hinge. A Sagittarius carried a powerful bow that could launch arrows across a great distance.
The Provocatores Were The Best Gladiators
The Provocatores were regarded as the best of the gladiators. Their name means challenger in Latin, and it is a fitting title.
Their armor was initially very similar to that of Roman legionaries. Over time, their armor changed to follow the trends of the time. The Provocatores frequently appeared in elaborate setpieces, some of which were based on real battles.
The Retiarii Were The Lowest Gladiators
The lowest of the gladiators were the Retiarii. A Retiarius, unlike his peers, did not wear any armor. He was armed with a dagger, a trident, and a weighted net.
In the arena, a Retiarius would face off against a Secutor. A Secutor carried both a sword and a shield. Additionally, he wore armor that was designed to withstand the weapons of the Retiarius. Not only were the Retiarii the least popular of the gladiators, what little they had to defend themselves wasn't much help.
Strength And Height Determined Gladiatorial Class
The strength and height of a gladiator determined what class they were placed in. This important assignment was one of the first steps in their journey as a gladiator.
The Dimachaeri, who fought with two swords, were usually the strongest and largest men. The less fortunate ones would become Retiarii. However, the majority of gladiators became Murmillones and Thraeces.
Priscus And Verus
Two of the famous gladiators were Priscus and Verus. These two men had frequently fought against each other in the arena. According to the poet Martial, Priscus and Verus put down their swords after hours of fighting. This left their fate to be decided by the surprised onlookers.
Unexpectedly, Emperor Titus was deeply moved by this act of sportsmanship. Rather than ordering either of them to be killed, he allowed both Priscus and Verus to live. Furthermore, he let the two men leave the arena as free men. Titus is depicted in the sculpture above.
Carpophorus
Aside from fighting each other, gladiators often fought wild animals in the arena. Doing so was incredibly dangerous and often resulted in the death of the gladiator. Gladiators of this type were called Bestiarii.
One of the most famous Bestiarii was Carpophorus. He famously fought at the opening of the Flavian Amphitheatre, known today as the Colosseum. Carpophorus reportedly killed 20 animals in a single day, including a lion, a bear, and a rhinoceros. Some even compared him to the Roman demigod Hercules.
Some Gladiator Schools Were Specialized
Not all gladiator schools provided the same training. Some were specialized and only instructed certain types of gladiators. For example, if a gladiator went to the Bestiaries School, they were only trained to be a Bestiarius.
Large gladiator schools had extra features that other facilities lacked. Because of its size, trainees at the Ludus Magnus could practice riding horseback and on chariots. However, schools outside of Rome were often far less specialized.
The Gladiatorial Games Were Advertised
Much like modern sports games, gladiatorial events were advertised. In Pompeii, archaeologists have discovered signs and displays promoting the games. These were created by professional signmakers and were placed on houses and even tombs.
One of the main attractions to a game was how many gladiators would be present. The more gladiators, the more spectacle and more interest from attendees. These advertisements were key to attracting large audiences to the many arenas scattered throughout the Roman Empire.
The Gladiators Had A Huge Following
Gladiators had a huge following of admirers. A tool called a strigil would be used to collect their sweat, which could then be purchased in vials. These vials were bought by Roman women and used as a kind of facial cream.
Additionally, there is ancient graffiti attesting to the popularity of gladiators. Among the graffiti in Pompeii is this message: Celadus makes the girls swoon. In many ways, gladiators were the celebrities of their day.
Former Gladiators Also Had A Following
Even the former gladiators who became referees had a large following. Throngs of people would gather to watch them in action, even if they were refereeing a match.
The referees would take full advantage of this and often charged considerable sums of money. Historians have noted that in their second careers, these gladiators turned referees could become quite wealthy.
The Gladiators Were At The Bottom Of The Social Ladder
Despite their enormous following, the gladiators were at the bottom of the social ladder. Even those who chose to be gladiators automatically lowered their status by doing so. Essentially, gladiators were on the same level as those who sold their services, including actors and sex workers.
Unlike those two professions, gladiators were famed for their courage. Despite the widespread admiration of the public, gladiators were never allowed to forget their status. They were largely viewed as paid laborers and little else.
Gladiators Were Hired As Bodyguards
Outside of the arena, gladiators would be hired to protect the elite of Roman society. Given their proven ability to protect themselves, they were ideal bodyguards.
In times of civil unrest, gladiators became especially popular as bodyguards. Women were notoriously fond of hiring gladiators as bodyguards. If nothing else, it was an easy way to spend time with their favorite fighter.
Gladiators Only Fought A Few Times A Year
Surprisingly, the majority of gladiators only fought a few times a year. This was done to give them time to train and recover from prior matches.
However, this did not prevent the Roman public from enjoying gladiatorial combat. There were hundreds of experienced gladiators, and new ones were being trained almost constantly. The gladiators with the highest celebrity status fought the least. It is believed that they only had to fight once a year.
Gladiators Drank Ashes After A Fight
Gladiators had an unusual remedy after a fight. To heal bruises and restore their strength, they drank water and ashes out of a cup. This practice was recorded by Pliny the Elder, the famous Roman historian. He is depicted in the statue below.
While this may be hard to believe, there appears to be proof of this claim. In their examination of gladiators' skeletal remains, archaeologists have found high levels of calcium. This would seem to imply that the gladiators did indeed drink ashes.
A Gladiator's Honorable Death
Should a gladiator die in the arena, they were meant to do so with honor. Crying or begging for mercy was not an option. If the referee decided that the defeated gladiator should be killed, they should accept it with dignity.
As a sign of acceptance, the defeated gladiator would kneel on the ground. They would then expose their throat to be swiftly cut by their opponent. The relief above depicts a similar scene. Those who died the most nobly were placed on a couch dedicated to Libitina. She was the goddess of funerals and burial.
Verifying A Gladiator's Death
A gladiator's injuries did not always end with a fatal wound by their opponent. The job of verifying a gladiator's death sometimes fell to an official in the arena. This official would be dressed like Dispater, one of the Roman gods of the underworld. Dispater is the figure on the left in the painting below.
With a large mallet, the official would club the fallen gladiator to ensure that they did not survive. As gruesome as this would have been, it was apparently quite popular among the bloodthirsty spectators.
The Gladiator's Reward
A gladiator's reward was more than just their life or their honor. First, they would be given a crown to wear on their head or a palm branch.
Additionally, they would receive the prize money specified in their contract. Attendees might also give the gladiator some of their money, which would be collected on a silver tray. The dead would be taken out of the arena through one gate while the champion departed through another.
The Symbol Of A Gladiator's Retirement
If a gladiator lived long enough, they could eventually retire from service. This would require surviving multiple encounters in the arena over an extensive period. While this was not very common, it did happen from time to time.
When and if a gladiator retired, they were presented with a wooden sword called a Gladius Rudis. This sword symbolically represented the end of their life as a gladiator.
A Gladiator Had To Fight Their Way To Freedom
To obtain their Gladius Rudis, a gladiator had to fight their way to freedom. In rare instances, a gladiator would be freed after one match, but only if they provided exceptional entertainment. Most of the time, a gladiator could be freed after surviving 15 matches.
This was not a simple task. Many gladiators died long before their 15th match. Since most gladiators only fought a handful of times a year, it could take more than five years before they even got their chance.
Some Gladiators Refused Freedom
As strange as it may sound, not all gladiators wanted to be free. When given a choice, some outright refused freedom. Flamma was a Syrian gladiator who fought during the second century A.D. At the time, Emperor Hadrian was the ruler of the Roman Empire. He is depicted in the sculpture below.
Four different times, Flamma was offered his freedom. Each time, he refused and decided to continue his life as a gladiator. As a result, he was ultimately killed in a match in Sicily. In his life of 30 years, he had fought in 34 gladiatorial matches and won 21.
The Gladiator War
Also known as the War of Spartacus, the Gladiator War lasted from 73 to 71 B.C. It began when a group of gladiators escaped from a gladiator school in Capua, Italy. Within two years, over 100,000 men had joined this movement.
One of the leaders of the movement was Spartacus, a former gladiator. After multiple victories over the Roman military, Spartacus and his forces were finally defeated. However, their exploits became legendary and were depicted in the 1960 film Spartacus.
The State Assumed Control After The Gladiator War
The Gladiator War ultimately had a ripple effect across the Roman Empire. While gladiator schools had previously operated independently, the state now began to assume control. One of the main reasons for doing this was to ensure that the gladiators did not start another war.
The Roman emperors also commissioned the construction of new gladiator schools. Emperor Domitian had four schools built in Rome during his reign. One of them was the Ludus Magnus.
Emperor Nero And Spiculus
As he was overthrown, Emperor Nero took his own life. Interestingly, it was a gladiator who was supposed to kill the notorious emperor. Nero wanted to die at the hands of Spiculus, who was his favorite gladiator. Nero had lavished enormous amounts of wealth on Spiculus after he became a free man. He had even gifted him several palaces.
Unfortunately, Spiculus could not make it to Nero in time to grant his request. Much to the emperor's dismay, he was left with no other choice but to take his own life. Nero is depicted in the sculpture above.
Emperor Constantine Temporarily Stopped The Gladiatorial Games
Around 325 A.D., Emperor Constantine stopped the gladiatorial games. It is believed that this was due to a lack of fighters. Since the Roman Empire was in a time of peace, there were fewer prisoners of war. For years, prisoners of war had been sent to fight in the arena.
Unfortunately, those who had already been enslaved did not receive their freedom. Instead, they were put to work in the mines. Constantine's ban was only a temporary one. In his later years, he decreed that the games would resume as a celebration of his rule.
Emperor Valentinian Exempted Christians From Becoming Gladiators
Emperor Valentinian ruled the Western Roman Empire several decades after Constantine. A devout Christian, he made several reforms that directly impacted them. One of these was exempting Christians from becoming gladiators.
Valentinian is depicted on the gold coin above. He also tried to limit the lavish expenses of public entertainment like the gladiatorial games. Nevertheless, the games were permitted to continue under his reign.
Emperor Honorius Banned All Gladiatorial Games
Under the reign of Emperor Honorius, who is pictured below, the gladiatorial games ended. On January 1st, 404 A.D., a stranger burst into the arena amidst a fierce tournament. The stranger was Telemachus, a monk who was passing through Rome. Telemachus urged the gladiators to cease their fighting.
Furious that their entertainment had been interrupted, the crowd of spectators stoned the poor monk to death. However, the sight of the dead monk profoundly affected those at the arena. In response to the tragedy, Emperor Honorius banned all gladiatorial games. After hundreds of years and thousands of deaths, it was over. The bloody fights of the gladiators were brought to an end.
It has been thousands of years since the era of the gladiators. Their stories have been told in numerous films, novels, and other forms of media. Among these are Howard Fast's 1951 novel Spartacus and Ridley Scott's 2000 film Gladiator. Despite the years that have passed, these brave and brutal fighters remain icons of Roman history.